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Seeds of Change for Restoration Ecology
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FORESTS PROVIDE A WIDE VARIETY OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES, INCLUDING PROVISIONS SUCH AS
food and fuel and services that affect climate and water quality (1). In light of the increasing
global population pressure, we must not only conserve, but also restore forests to meet the
increasing demands for ecosystem services and goods
that they provide (2). Ecological restoration has recently
adopted insights from the biodiversity-ecosystem function
(BEF) perspective (3). This emphasis on functional
rather than taxonomic diversity (3, 4), combined with
increasing acceptance of perennial, global-scale effects
on the environment (5, 6) and the associated species
gains and losses (“Terrestrial ecosystem responses to
species gains and losses,” D. A. Wardle et al., Review,
10 June, p. 1273), may be the beginning of a paradigm
shift in forest conservation and restoration ecology. As
a result, we may see increased tolerance toward and the
use of nonnative tree species in forests worldwide
8 JULY 2011 VOL 333 SCIENCE
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From Ocean to Stratosphere
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Rising tropical sea surface temperatures
alter atmospheric dynamics at heights of 16 kilometers or more.
SCIENCE VOL 322 3 OCTOBER 2008
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Linked in: Connectiong Riparian areas to support Forest Biodiversity
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Many forest-dwelling species rely on both
terrestrial and aquatic habitat for their
survival. These species, including rare and
little-understood amphibians and arthropods,
live in and around headwater streams and
disperse overland to neighboring headwater
streams. Forest management policies that
rely on riparian buffer strips and structurebased
management—practices meant to
preserve habitat—address only some of
these habitat needs. They generally do not
consider the overland connectivity necessary
for these species to successfully move across
a landscape to maintain genetically diverse
populations.
Management in headwater areas also can
affect downstream salmon habitat. Landslides
and debris flows initiated in these areas can
severely degrade habitat by dumping too
much sediment and not enough large wood
into the stream. Carefully managing sensitive
headwater areas can aid not only amphibians
and arthropods, but also threatened salmon
populations and other forest organisms.
Pacific Northwest Research Station scientists
are exploring scenarios for protecting
headwaters by extending riparian buffers
and connecting them over ridgelines to
neighboring drainages. A range of management
practices designed to achieve multiple
objectives may be appropriate in these
protected areas to facilitate cost-effective,
ecologically integrated management plans.
Headwater links could piggyback on lands
that are already protected and could consider
such factors as sensitivity to debris flows and
landslides, land ownerships and objectives,
and climate change.
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Mount St. Helens: Still Erupting Lessons 31 Years Later
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The massive volcanic eruption of
Mount St. Helens 31 years ago provided
the perfect backdrop for studying the
earliest stages of forest development.
Immediately after the eruption, some
areas of the blast area were devoid
of life. On other parts of the volcanic
landscape, many species survived,
although their numbers were greatly
reduced. Reassembly began at many
different starting points along the
spectrum of disturbance. Within the
national volcanic monument, natural
regeneration generally has been
allowed to proceed at its own pace.
Charlie Crisafulli and Fred Swanson,
scientists with the Pacific Northwest
Research Station, along with numerous
collaborators, have found that the sunlit
environment, dominated by shrubs,
herbs, and grasses that characterize
early-seral ecosystems, supports complex
food webs involving numerous
herbivores. These biologically rich
areas provide habitat for plant and
animal species that are either found
only in these early-seral ecosystems or
reach their highest densities there.
Although much of the focus of forest
ecosystem management over the past
20 years in the Pacific Northwest has
been on protecting old forests and
hastening development of conditions
associated with older forests, the
research on Mount St. Helens points
to the ecological value of allowing a
portion of a managed landscape to
develop characteristics of a complex
early-seral ecosystem
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Thinking Big: Linking Rivers to Landscapes
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Exploring relationships between
landscape characteristics and rivers is
an emerging field of study, bolstered
by the proliferation of satellite data,
advances in statistical analysis,
and increased emphasis on largescale
monitoring. Climate patterns
and landscape features such as road
networks, underlying geology, and
human developments determine the
characteristics of the rivers flowing
through them. A multiagency team of
scientists developed novel modeling
methods to link these landscape features
to instream habitat and to abundance of
coho salmon in Oregon coastal streams.
This is the first comprehensive analysis
of landscape-scale data collected as
part of the state’s Oregon Plan for
Salmon and Watersheds.
The research team found that watershed
characteristics and human activities
far from the river’s edge influence
the distribution and habitats of coho
salmon. Although large-scale landscape
characteristics can predict stream
reaches that might support greater
numbers of coho salmon, smaller
scale features and random chance
also play a role in whether coho
spawn in a particular stream and in a
particular year. The team developed
new models that successfully predicted
the distribution of instream habitat
features. Volume of instream wood
and pool frequency were the features
most influenced by human activities.
Studying these relationships can help
guide large-scale monitoring and
management of aquatic resources.
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Seasonal Neighbors: Residential Development Encroaches on Mule Deer Winter Range in Central Oregon
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Mule deer populations in central Oregon
are in decline, largely because of habitat
loss. Several factors are likely contributors.
Encroaching juniper and invasive
cheatgrass are replacing deer forage
with high nutritional value, such as bitterbrush
and sagebrush. Fire suppression
and reduced timber harvests mean fewer
acres of early successional forest, which
also offer forage opportunities. Human
development, including homes and roads,
is another factor. It is this one that scientists
with the Pacific Northwest Research
Station and their collaborators investigated
in a recent study.
As part of an interagency assessment of
the ecological effects of resort development
near Bend, Oregon, researchers
examined recent and potential development
rates and patterns and evaluated
their impact on mule deer winter range.
They found that residential development
in central Oregon is upsetting traditional
migratory patterns, reducing available
habitat, and possibly increasing stress
for mule deer. Many herds of mule deer
spend the summer in the Cascade Range
and move to lower elevations during the
winter. An increasing number of buildings,
vehicle traffic, fencing, and other
obstacles that accompany human land
use are making it difficult for mule deer
to access and use their winter habitat.
The study provides valuable information
for civic leaders, land use planners,
and land managers to use in weighing
the ecological impact of various land use
decisions in central Oregon.
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Ecosystem Service Markets 101: Supply and Demand for Nature
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Establishing markets for ecosystem services—the benefits that nature provides, such as clean air, water, and wildlife habitat—has gained traction in some circles as a way to finance the conservation of these public goods. Market influences on supply and demand work in tandem to encourageecosystem protection. Jeff Kline and Trista Patterson, scientists with the Pacific Northwest (PNW) Research Station, have identified several criteria needed for ecosystem service markets to achieve their potential. These include regulatory limits on environmental damage, ecosystem services that are amenable to trading, and manageable transaction costs related to administering market programs and the necessary measuring and monitoring of marketed resources. If these criteria are not met, other conservation methods such as conservation easements, landowner incentive programs for environmental enhancement or protection, or taxes on environmental damage may be more effective. Discussions about ecosystem services often focus on increasing supply— storing more carbon or delivering more water, for example. However, net pressures on ecosystems can also be reduced by addressing consumption. Many energy efficiencies can be achieved
by promoting awareness, informed choices, and behavior change. The PNW Research Station is examining
both supply and demand approaches to ecosystem protection by encouraging the development of ecosystem services markets and identifying ways to reduce its own environmental footprint.
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Logging Debris Matters: Better Soil, Fewer Invasive Plants
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The logging debris that remains after
timber harvest traditionally has been seen
as a nuisance. It can make subsequent tree
planting more difficult and become fuel
for wildfire. It is commonly piled, burned,
or taken off site. Logging debris, however,
contains significant amounts of carbon
and nitrogen—elements critical to soil
productivity. Its physical presence in the
regenerating forest creates microclimates
that influence a broad range of soil and
plant processes.
Researchers Tim Harrington of the
Pacific Northwest Research Station;
Robert Slesak, a soil scientist with the
Minnesota Forest Resources Council;
and Stephen Schoenholtz, a professor of
forest hydrology and soils at Virginia
Tech, conducted a five-year study at two
sites in Washington and Oregon to see
how retaining logging debris affected
the soil and other growing conditions at
each locale.
They found that keeping logging debris in
place improved soil fertility, especially in
areas with coarse-textured, nutrient-poor
soils. Soil nitrogen and other nutrients
important to tree growth increased, and
soil water availability increased due to the
debris’ mulching effect. The debris cooled
the soil, which slowed the breakdown and
release of soil carbon into the atmosphere.
It also helped prevent invasive species such
as Scotch broom and trailing blackberry
from dominating the sites.
Forest managers are using this information
to help maximize the land’s productivity
while reducing their costs associated with
debris disposal.
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Adaptation: Planning for Climate Change and Its Effects on Federal Lands
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National forest managers are charged with tackling the effects of climate change on the natural resources
under their care. The Forest Service National Roadmap for Responding to Climate Change and the Climate
Change Performance Scorecard require managers to make significant progress in addressing climate
change by 2015. To help land managers meet this challenge, Forest Service scientists conducted three case studies on national forests and adjacent national parks and documented a wide range of scientific issues and solutions. They summarized the scientific foundation for climate change adaptation and made the information accessible to land managers by creating a climate change adaptation guidebookand web portal. Case study teams discovered that collaboration among scientists and land managers is crucial to adaptation planning, as are management plans targeted to the particular ecosystem conditions and management priorities of each region. Many current management practices are consistent with climate change
adaptation goals. Because timely implementation is critical, strategies are in development at the national
level to speed the implementation of science-based climate change adaptation processes in national
forests throughout the country.
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Tangled Trends for Temperate Rain Forests as Temperatures Tick Up
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Climate change is altering growing
conditions in the temperate rain forest
region that extends from northern California
to the Gulf of Alaska. Longer,
warmer growing seasons are generally
increasing the overall potential for
forest growth in the region. However,
species differ in their ability to adapt
to changing conditions. For example,
researchers with Pacific Northwest
Research Station examined forest
trends for southeastern and southcentral
Alaska and found that, in 13
years, western redcedar showed a
4.2-percent increase in live-tree biomass,
while shore pine showed a
4.6-percent decrease. In general, the
researchers found that the amount of
live-tree biomass in extensive areas
of unmanaged, higher elevation forest
in southern Alaska increased by
as much as 8 percent over the 13-year
period, contributing to significant
carbon storage.
Hemlock dwarf mistletoe is another species
expected to fare well under warmer
conditions in Alaska. Model projections
indicate that habitat for this parasitic
species could increase 374 to 757 percent
over the next 100 years. This could
temper the prospects for western hemlock—a
tree species otherwise expected
to do well under future climate conditions
projected for southern Alaska.
In coastal forests of Washington and
Oregon, water availability may be a
limiting factor in future productivity,
with gains at higher elevations
but declines at lower elevations
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